El Centro Annotated Subject Bibliography: Mafia (Cartel) Water Theft, Water Resource Control, and Community Extortion

Water is a public good subsidized, if not freely provided, by governments. Many would further argue that access to water is a fundamental human right. The water supply in many places, however, is increasingly being co-opted as a private commodity and resold in an act of predatory capitalism undertaken by small criminal groups, larger mafias, and now the Mexican cartels. These criminal entities, often referred to as the local “Water Mafia” or “Water Tank Mafia,” can be found in South Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America. Identified areas with a concentration of this activity include Delhi and Mumbai, India; Karachi, Pakistan; Jordan, and regions of South Africa, Venezuela, and, increasingly over the last five years or so, Mexico (beginning with the Cártel de Sinaloa taking advantage of local drought conditions). This trending was identified early on by Dr. Vanda Felbab-Brown (an El Centro Fellow) in her February 2015 lecture, “Water Crimes: a Global Crisis on the Rise.”[1]

This form of illicit environmental crime, projected by Dr. Phil Williams as a component of the “Fifth Wave” of transnational crime in November 2024, is derived from the global megatrends of geopolitical competition, global climate change, emerging and disruptive technologies, and the global crisis of governance. The Fifth Wave will see the projected rise of criminal safe havens, protective authoritarian states (such as Venezuela and Russia which actively nurture and utilize criminal groups), criminal hubs and superhubs, and the rise of parallel criminal-governance.[2] The projection aligns with the criminal insurgencies, third generation gangs, feral cities, and epochal change constructs underlying ongoing Small Wars Journal–El Centro research and publication activities.

This form of criminality exists on a continuum from one-off water tanker thefts (via rip crews) and illicit waterline tapping through sustained water resource control where long term and structured theft is taking place—potentially including the takeover of community water spigots and fountains, the illegal utilization of governmental water tankers via an agreement with corrupt officials, the criminalized drilling for water, as well as the tapping of rivers and reservoirs with dedicated piping systems. Ultimately, a public good required for basic human survival has been co-opted, privatized, and resold on the illicit market as a prized commodity. This co-optation results in what can be considered a form of community extortion and control utilized by criminal groups (typically in coordination with corrupt political elites) for economic extractive purposes. It is taking place in regions with weak political capacity, diminished rule of law and governance, failing public infrastructures, rampant corruption, and ongoing environmental stresses. Criminal groups, specifically the Mexican cartels, are moving into this activity to ensure that the water requirements of their illicit crops are also satisfied and to engage in the ongoing extortion of agricultural producers such as farmers and larger business producers.

This annotated subject bibliography contains primarily news pieces, articles, and reports along with limited podcast and video resources. It fulfills a critical need due to the lack of research being conducted related to this illicit global activity. Further, an emphasis has been placed on water theft and resource control in Mexico, given its immediate proximity to the United States and the fact that many of its cartels have been recently elevated to the status of foreign terrorist organizations (FTOs).[3] Additionally, at least one identified instance of domestic large-scale water theft has now taken place in the US linked to the Mexican cartels. Illicit cartel marijuana grows in Antelope Valley, California in 2021—using stolen water—generated over a billion dollars in economic profits.[4] Congressional testimony has since surfaced of 793 water stealing dams in California having been dismantled earlier. They were linked to illicit marijuana grows during the 2013 through 2018 period, portraying the ongoing pervasiveness of Mexican cartel (in cooperation with Chinese organized criminal groups) water theft crimes taking place domestically.[5].

The following works provide important insights towards a deeper understanding of the phenomenon of organized water theft and its follow-on effects along with potential avenues toward mitigation:

Peter Appleby, “Water Scarcity Is a Boom For Mexican Organized Crime.” InSight Crime. 2 May 2025, https://insightcrime.org/news/water-scarcity-is-a-boom-for-mexican-organized-crime/?utm_source:

Abstract: This investigative journalism piece details how the Mexican state of Michoacan is utilizing GEOINT (geospatial intelligence) to counter water theft, as criminal groups have been exploiting the natural resource. A state environmental surveillance system–backed by NASA and EU satellites— is now being used to monitor privately owned irrigation reservoirs, seeking to address environmental crimes by advanced technical means.

Jeremiah Ogonda Asaka, Daniel Weisz Argomedo, and Nathan P. Jones, “Climate change risks to water security: Exploring the interplay between climate change, water theft, and water (in)security.” Water Policy. Vol. 26, No. 4, 2024: pp. 359-380, https://iwaponline.com/wp/article/26/4/359/101006/Climate-change-risks-to-water-security-Exploring:

Abstract: This article is from the Official Journal of the World Water Council and utilizes a lens that examines the complex relationship between climate change, water theft, and water (in)security. Mexico is used as a case study with relevant illegal actors, including Cártel de Sinaloa (CDS), Los Mazatlecos (tied to the Beltrán Leyva faction), and Cártel Jalisco Nueva Generación (CJNG), as well as opportunistic citizens. The repercussions of water theft are discussed, including the aggravation of an already existing national water crisis, the displacement of communities, the contamination of natural water sources, and potential increases in violence and conflict due to resource scarcity.

Alejandro Santos Cid, “La ‘mafia del agua’ de Los Cabos: campos de golf para turistas y barrios muertos de sed [The Los Cabos ‘water mafia’: golf courses for tourists and thirsty neighborhoods].” El País. 30 December 2024, https://elpais.com/mexico/2024-12-09/la-mafia-del-agua-de-los-cabos-campos-de-golf-para-turistas-y-barrios-muertos-de-sed.html:

Abstract: This news report details how areas in Cabo San Lucas are facing water shortages, with local populations in particular suffering, while visiting tourists live with an abundance of water. Local pipes have run dry and are not supplied with water, such that local populations receive water from hoses from water trucks. As a result, working-class populations are impacted by the acclaimed “Water Mafias,” where significant percentages of their income can go towards purchasing water from illicit water trucks.

Luis Chaparro, “The Sinaloa Cartel Is Controlling Water in Drought-Stricken Mexico.” Vice. 20 September 2022: pp. 1-25, https://www.vice.com/en/article/mexico-sinaloa-cartel-water/:

Abstract: This article examines the consequences of the Sinaloa cartel taking control over local rivers within canyons located in Chihuahua state. A mid-level Sinaloa Cartel commander known as “El Senor” stated that “Here, everything has an owner…Rivers, creeks, lakes… everything, and especially water.” The Sinaloa Cartel has taken advantage of massive droughts to profit by siphoning water from local natural bodies of water by using miles of pipelines which they have constructed. “El Señor” went on further to state that “Water is now a valuable asset for us, and as it becomes more scarce, the more we will fight to make sure we have enough.”

“Los explotadores de agua, Mexicanos Contra la corrupcion y la impunidad [Water exploiters, Mexicans against corruption and impunity].” Contrala Corrupcion. 31 August 2025 (Accessed), https://contralacorrupcion.mx/explotadores-agua-mexico/:

Abstract: This investigative report from an established NGO is aimed at combating water corruption. It provides a historical explanation behind the issues that have led to the current situation of water shortages. Despite Mexican national laws having been established in the early 1990s deeming water a national resource, the physical and theoretical foundations of such laws have been poor. For example, the initial infrastructure featured leaks which were never corrected over time. They were further exacerbated by poor management of water resources, weak successive governments, and a lack of information concerning the actual amount of water that was being illegally extracted by private persons and business entities.

Enya M. Contreras, “Agricultores de Sinaloa bajo el yugo del crimen organizado: control del agua, extorsiones, amenazas y violencia [Sinaloa famers under the yoke of organized crime: water, extortion, threats, and violence].” El Imparcial. 16 February 2025, https://www.elimparcial.com/mexico/2025/02/16/agricultores-de-sinaloa-bajo-el-yugo-del-crimen-organizado-control-del-agua-extorsiones-amenazas-y-violencia/:

Abstract: This news article details how in Sinaloa, the Cártel de Sinaloa and Los Mazatlecos have seized control of irrigation modules, extorting farmers and manipulating their access to water. Farmers are compelled to pay ‘derecho de piso’ (AKA floor rights) for water access and transportation of goods, facing severe consequences like water cuts, theft, machinery fires, and road blockades if they refuse. As per the article, “The dispute between criminal groups has escalated to alarming levels. Since September 2024, Sinaloa has experienced one of the most violent episodes in its history, with more than 900 murders and 1,119 disappearances. Farmers face not only extortion but also direct threats.”

Chris Dalby, “GameChangers 2020: How Black Markets Became the New Normal.” InSight Crime. 23 December 2020, https://insightcrime.org/news/gamechanger-black-markets-new-normal:

Abstract: This investigative piece looks into the illegal water market which exploded in Venezuela during the COVID-19 pandemic at the hands of the alleged “Water Mafia.”  Illegal actors have been known to break into water pipes and tap them to resell the resource for profit. Despite government efforts, there has been little success in curbing the mafia’s actions. This trend is following a larger issue of black-market reselling of basic goods and niche products, involving both petty thieves as well as larger groups.

Marco Antonio Duarte, “Bedolla acusa a empresarios aguacateros de extraer agua ilegalmente del Lago de Pátzcuaro [Bedolla accuses avocado growers of illegally extracting water from Lake Pátzcuaro].” Latin US. 4 January 2024, https://latinus.us/mexico/2024/4/1/bedolla-acusa-empresarios-aguacateros-de-extraer-agua-ilegalmente-del-lago-de-patzcuaro-111506.html:

Abstract: This journalistic news article explains how Governor Bedolla has accused owners of avocado orchards of illegally taking water from a reservoir known as Lake Patzcuaro to fill their ‘ollas’ (irrigation reservoirs), which are also illegal. Moreover, a Michoacán state government secretary has stated that there have been at least six identified points where illegal water extraction has occurred with an operation also launched against illegal water extraction. Water tankers have been reported by anonymous callers to its 911 system, detailing how tankers/vehicles equipped with 1,000 litre water containers extract the resource.

Katja Eman and Rob White, “Chapter 4: Water and Organised Crime.” Katja Eman Gorazd Meško, Lorenzo Segato, and Massimo Migliorini, Eds., Water, Governance, and Crime Issues. Switzerland: Springer Nature, 2020: pp. 47-59, https://www.academia.edu/119994812/Water_and_Organised_Crime:

Abstract: The chapter explains that water theft and its subsequent sale is a highly valuable niche area for organized crime. It is basically low risk given the lack of penalties and thus not yet a ‘crime of serious consequence.’ Until it is perceived as such—once its sheer scale and elements are better understood—proper ways to disrupt such activities will not be undertaken. A discussion of organized environmental crime and water crimes from an organized crime perspective is undertaken in this academic work and strategies highlighted which may help to disrupt it.

Vanda Felbab-Brown, Water Theft and Water Smuggling: Growing Problem of Tempest in a Teapot.Washington, DC: Foreign Policy at Brookings. March 2017, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/fp_201703_water_theft_smuggling.pdf:

Abstract: This research report discusses various ideologies regarding water theft, with the author providing her own definitions of water theft and, moreover, the nuances of the ever-growing issue of water smuggling. The author addresses regulations and laws that may impact what constitutes water smuggling, while also reviewing how they must be improved to bring about better enforcement. However, a perspective is also presented that recognizes that, in certain instances, persons partaking in such illegal activities are doing so to simply survive rather than profit. Many examples are presented of more nefarious water smuggling practices, however, within India, South Africa, Liberia, Pakistan, India, and Mexico.

Naman Govil, Director., Water Mafia.  DocuBay Original, 2024: 45:00 Minute Video [English Subtitles], https://www.docubay.com/water-mafia-4472:

Abstract: This documentary focuses on the “Water Mafias” that currently exist in two of India’s largest cities, New Delhi and Mumbai. It draws upon data and analysis provided by journalist Vivek Agrawal in a hard-hitting production. Per the description of the documentary by Kaushiki Ganguly at OTTplay, “The docufilm offers the insightful perspectives of victims, erstwhile victimizers aka criminals, urban planners, investigative journalists, scholars, economists, and political figures, to create a vivid picture of the actual crisis, the whistleblowers and moles who act as middlemen between those on either side of the law to facilitate a smooth influx of cash.”[6] The video is also available via Amazon Prime (with a DocuBay account) with the 1:42 minute YouTube trailer link provided here.

Diaa Hadid and Abdul Sattar, “For Karachi’s Water Mafia, Stolen H2O Is A ‘Lucrative Business.’” NPR. 10 September 2018, https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/09/10/645525392/for-karachis-water-mafia-stolen-h20-is-a-lucrative-business:

Abstract: The news report focuses on the “Water Tanker Mafia” found in Karachi, Pakistan and how it caters to the needs of the residents of the slum of Korangi which now has no running water. At least ten years ago (2008 or earlier), running water existed but organized crime groups have long since siphoned off the government provided water in the pipes coming into the slum. It is estimated that about a third of the Karachi water supply is now siphoned off (or lost via leaky pipes) making illicit water sales a lucrative source of revenues for the local mafias. There is concern that a scarcity of water—and the rise of new water mafias—may extend to other regions of Pakistan in the future. The report includes an accompanying 4-minuter audio podcast.

Christian Klassert and Samer Talozi, “Climate crisis sees rise in illegal water markets in the Middle East.” The Conversation. 26 June 2024, https://theconversation.com/climate-crisis-sees-rise-in-illegal-water-markets-in-the-middle-east-220590:

Abstract: This short research note, supported by US and German funding, highlights how the illicit water market has now taken hold in Jordan due to increasing water scarcity. The researchers are linked to the Stanford University Food Water Energy for Urban Sustainable Environments (FUSE) consortium which “has successfully connected models developed by economists and hydrologists to map out illegal water markets in Jordan.” Most of the water tanker deliveries in the country source their water from illegal wells, with rising informal and criminal economies expanding to meet the water needs of growing urban populations.

“Water, the new loot for cartels: they seek to control the distribution of the liquid.” La Derecha Dario. 6 February 2025, https://derechadiario.com.ar/us/mexico/mexican-cartels-seek-to-control-water-distribution:

Abstract: This news article examines how various communities within Mexico have become increasingly vulnerable due to cartel (such as CJNG and CDS) takeover of water resources. As per the article, “The National Water Commission (Conagua) has identified more than 5,000 illegal taps in the north of the country, nearly triple the number from five years ago.” Entire communities have been left without any access to water, with illegal actors additionally extorting farmers and imposing fees. Accordingly, a clandestine water market has emerged, leading to inflation of other essential goods.

Sai Manish, “Black Market for Water Expands in Delhi.” New York Times. 18 September 2013,  https://archive.nytimes.com/india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/09/18/black-market-for-water-expands-in-delhi/:

Abstract: This New York Times article reviews the ongoing water crisis in Delhi, India which results in a daily shortage of approximately 207 million gallons of water across the poorly designed infrastructure. The local government is described as not having taken adequate action to address the issue, such that residents must resort to other means, while others do not even have any piped water provided. Unauthorized water tankers have filled the gaps for water demands and this “succeeds because it fills the vacuum created by the Delhi government’s inability to provide an essential resource to its citizens.” This has, in turn, given rise to expanding ‘Water Mafias’ which control this valuable resource for illicit gain.

Rubi Martinez, “Huachicoleo de agua: así es cómo los grupos criminales han agravado la crisis hídrica [Water theft: This is how criminal groups have worsened the water crisis].” Milenio. 14 May 2025, https://www.milenio.com/policia/narcotrafico/asi-funciona-huachicoleo-de-agua-estas-son-las-consecuencias:

Abstract: Originally associated with oil theft, organized crime groups–particularly drug cartels such as the Cártel de Jalisco Nueva Generación (CJNG), Cártel de Santa Rosa de Lima (CSRL), and Cártel de Sinaloa (CDS)—have shifted their focus to water. This illicit activity is driven by the overexploitation of aquifers and the uncontrolled expansion of agribusiness. In key Mexican states like Michoacán, Estado de México, and Jalisco, water control translates directly into territorial power for these criminal groups. This power allows them to sustain illegal crops, supply agroindustries they protect, and extort local communities and governments through control over water supply. The methods of water theft are varied and often go unnoticed due to their clandestine nature or protection through corruption and falsified documents.

“Has the fifth wave of drug trafficking reached Mexico? This is how organized crime controls water and food.” Mexico Daily Post. 24 April 2025, https://mexicodailypost.news/2025/04/24/has-the-fifth-wave-of-drug-trafficking-reached-mexico-this-is-how-organized-crime-controls-water-and-food:

Abstract: This news article discusses “The Fifth Wave” research report in the context of Mexico and water theft. That report was published by the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC) in November 2024 by Phil Williams. The report argues that organized criminal groups will by 2040 (if not before) switch their focus from illegal goods to basic goods (strategic resources) such as food, water, and minerals to secure themselves into powerful economic positions. The article argues that this Fifth Wave has already emerged in Mexico as cartels have delved into strategic markets to diversify their incomes, much to the dismay of impacted local populations. Water is a resource that has already been taken over by the cartels in areas such as Chihuahua and the Chiapas.

Newsroom Afrika, “Spotlight on water mafia.” YouTube. 27 March 2025: 36:30 Minute Video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGTFaQupvFs:

Abstract: A South African news show hosts three guests—a deputy minister of water and sanitation, a politician representing the community of Claremont, and a water expert with a PhD—who discuss the lack of access to drinkable water for much of the nation due to pollution and unavailability. In addition to inadequate infrastructure (such as leaking pipes) and mismanagement, corruption has also come into play with the rise of violent ‘Water Mafias’ which represent an alliance of elites and organized crime preying on the local populace via illicit water tanker sales. Water Services Act reform is discussed as one solution to this dilemma, however citizens who have attempted to stand up to this form of organized crime have seen their houses burned down and, in some instances, have been killed.

Natalia Ningthoujam, “How El Chapo’s Sinaloa Cartel Is Controlling Water Supply In Mexico As Nation Faces Drought.” The Latin Times. 26 September 2022, https://www.latintimes.com/how-el-chapos-sinaloa-cartel-controlling-water-supply-mexico-nation-faces-drought-527653:

Abstract: This news article details how the Sinaloa cartel has taken over major water resources in northern Mexico, with actions to create a black-market beginning in 2021. Due to climate change, droughts, and water scarcity, this water black-market has thrived while cartels have also succeeded in using their illegal water resources for other self-interested purposes, such as watering their marijuana and poppy fields.

Aman Seth, “At the Mercy of the Water Mafia.” Foreign Policy. 17 July 2015, https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/07/17/at-the-mercy-of-the-water-mafia-india-delhi-tanker-gang-scarcity/:

Abstract: This early article highlights the ‘Water Tanker Mafia’ that exists in New Delhi, India which services the drinking water needs of the city’s twenty-five million residents. It works in conjunction with a shadowy and “dispersed web of city councilors, farmers, real estate agents, and fixers who source millions of gallons of water each day from illicit boreholes, as well as the city’s leaky pipe network, and sell the liquid for profit.” Arguments exist that it provides a much-needed resource to the local populace (albeit at predatory pricing) in the face of failing public infrastructure maintained by a low-capacity state rampant with mismanagement and issues of political corruption. Still, these mafias prey upon the poorest in society—who require access to water for basic survival as a public good—while the richer societal elements consider water as just another commoditized product.

Leo Stallworth, “Drug cartels stealing millions of gallons of water for marijuana grows in Antelope Valley: Officials.” ABC 7 News. 7 July 2021, https://abc7.com/videoClip/10866402/:

Abstract: This news article, with a featured 2:35 minute video, provides information from US officials on how drug cartels have been stealing approximately 2-3 million gallons of water a day from California aqueduct systems, fire hydrants, and wells. Los Angeles County Sheriff Alex Villanueva detailed that the stolen water is loaded onto tanker trucks which are then delivered to illicit grow operations that are producing marijuana. A $1.2 billion dollar cartel marijuana grow bust across the Antelope Valley is highlighted in this newscast.

Armando Solis and Associated Press (AP), “Furious Mexican farmers are ripping out water pumps for avocado orchards and berry fields, risking cartel reprisal.” Fortune. 29 April 2024, https://fortune.com/2024/04/29/mexico-avocados-water-farmers-protest-cartels/:

Abstract: This Fortune article provides insight into how, as their traditional water sources have been disappearing, local subsistence farmers and activists have been taking direct action to dismantle illegal irrigation infrastructure impacting human consumption and relevant ecosystems. This escalating conflict has been compounded by the involvement of drug cartels in the avocado industry, posing threats to activists.

Mara Tignino, “The regulation of crimes against water in armed conflicts and other situations of violence.” International Review of the Red Cross. ICRC No. 923, 2023: pp. 706–734, https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/the-regulation-of-crimes-against-water-in-armed-conflicts-923:

Abstract: The article discusses and analyzes the various threats posed towards water resources, especially during times of conflict, as non-state groups gain incentives to take control of water resources. Two types of crimes against water are discussed: those affecting the quality/quantity of freshwater resources (and their relevant ecosystems), and those affecting water installations, works, and facilities. The author also details the frameworks of international humanitarian law (IHL) and the United Nations, as efforts have been made in more recent years to protect water and all persons who require access to the resource. Domestic criminal laws are also addressed due to the limitations of IHL.

VICE TV, “The Water Gangs of Mexico City | BLACK MARKET.” YouTube. 28 June 2022: 5:38 Minute Video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ErKKTMAPAJE:

Abstract: This mini documentary illustrates the reality of water smuggling in Mexico City, with a VICE documentary maker joining a water tanker driver (‘Flacko’) and his armed guard for a night. Locals call such drivers “piperos” who sell clean water to diverse sets of buyers (e.g., individuals, businesses, and hotels) at set prices, with the area of the client determining the selling price. “Piperos” refer to the black market for water as the “water system.” Some of the water is sold right from government water tankers—the piperos having paid off corrupt officials to do so.

Washington Examiner, “International drug cartels illegally draining water supplies to grow plants, state senator claims.” YouTube. 2 August 2022: 2:40 Minute Video, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SuxyPMNm-Rs:

Abstract: This video examines assertions from California state senator Melissa Hurtado as she informed the news source that growers of marijuana (receiving external backing from China and Russia) have been setting up elaborate greenhouses and farms that drain local water supplies. Local farmers have suffered as a result, with little change taking place due to the generally minimal legal repercussions for actions that are high reward.

Endnotes

[1] Vanda Felbab-Brown, “Water Crimes: A Global Crisis on the Rise.” Brookings. 20 February 2015, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/water-crimes-a-global-crisis-on-the-rise/.

[2] Phil Williams, The Fifth Wave: Organized Crime in 2040. Geneva, Switzerland, November 2024, https://globalinitiative.net/analysis/organized-crime-in-2040/.

[3] President Donald J. Trump, “Designating Cartels And Other Organizations As Foreign Terrorist Organizations And Specially Designated Global Terrorists.” Washington, DC: The White House, Presidential Actions. 20 January 2025, https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/designating-cartels-and-other-organizations-as-foreign-terrorist-organizations-and-specially-designated-global-terrorists/.

[4] Leo Stallworth, “Drug cartels stealing millions of gallons of water for marijuana grows in Antelope Valley: Officials.” ABC 7 News. 7 July 2021, https://abc7.com/videoClip/10866402/.

[5] Lieutenant John Nores Jr., CDFW MET, Ret., “Cartel Impacts to Tribal Lands throughout America.” Washington, DC: House Committee on Natural Resources, Subcommittee for Oversight and Investigations. 4 June 2023, https://naturalresources.house.gov/uploadedfiles/testimony_nores.pdf.

[6] Kaushiki Ganguly, “Water Mafia on OTT- Where to watch the hard-hitting documentary?” OTTplay. 15 January 2024, https://www.ottplay.com/news/water-mafia-on-ott-where-to-watch-the-hard-hitting-documentary/6ac429877c539

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