Wars of the Greater Middle East, 1945–92 | TNSR

In “Wars of the Greater Middle East, 1945–92” (Texas National Security Review, Winter 2026), Dr. Carter Malkasian argues that the Cold War transformed warfare in the greater Middle East in ways that weakened state consolidation and empowered non-state actors. He contends that while postcolonial states built conventional militaries modeled on European powers, the costs, limits of nationalism, and social fragmentation constrained their effectiveness.

Malkasian shows that technological diffusion, foreign intervention, and ideological mobilization spread guerrilla warfare and terrorism, which placed violence “in the hands of the people”. His analysis links this democratization of violence to the revival of Islam as a political force that competed with and reshaped state authority. Examining transformations that occurred during the Cold War explains why irregular warfare now dominates conflict across the region. Below are highlights of Dr. Malkasian’s article, as well as a podcast interview he gave on the democratization of violence in the Middle East.

War in the Middle East Before 1945

Loyalties and sources of identity beyond the nation-state inhibited the consolidation of power. The Ottoman Empire and the states of the region lacked a monopoly on organized violence. Tribes, ethnic groups, and religious leaders were armed. Large areas outside the cities were outside control… Across the region, people were as likely to fight for tribe, community, or religion as state, empire, or ruler… Islam was important as a source of identity, in competition with the state.

Interstate Wars and Their Effect on Society During the Cold War

[Former Ottoman Empire] States fashioned their militaries along conventional lines for state-on-state wars… War indeed did mobilize, albeit in most cases with friction—whether from competing sources of identity, the military’s skewing of economic and political institutions, or war’s very cost… During these years, however, another, deeper source of identity was reviving. Since the nineteenth century, religious leaders, scholars, judges, intelligentsia, and political parties had looked to Islam to counter imperialism and Islamic law (shari‘a) to govern states… After the wars of 1967–1973, Islam was an answer to the military, political, economic, ethical, and spiritual shortcomings of the autocratic states.

War and the Strength of Islam

The rising influence of Islam is most apparent in the Iranian revolution and the Iran-Iraq War. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini rejected secular governments and American influence in the Middle East, endorsed violence to spread Islam, and introduced the doctrine of vilayat-e-faqih (rule by a single religious leader of Shi‘a worldwide).

After the wars of 1967–1973, Islam was an answer to the military, political, economic, ethical, and spiritual shortcomings of the autocratic states… Islamic fervor, the IRGC, and ballistic missiles became pillars of Iranian strategy… Changes in warfare and the revival of Islamic rule strengthened each other and opened a separate path for state formation.

Power to the People: Guerrilla Warfare and Terrorism

During the latter half of the Cold War, religious identity, technology, and foreign invasion delegated violence to the people… Movements and groups, villages and communities, could easily wage war regardless of the wishes of the king, president, or dictator… The spread of guerrilla warfare and terrorism armed the people… Five to ten fighters on their own could deploy the firepower of what had required dozens of soldiers and an artillery piece as recently as 1940.

War, State-Building, and Implications for Today

Violence was increasingly in the hands of the people as much as the state… By widening the scope of violence in the hands of the people, guerrilla warfare and terrorism complicated the consolidation of state power… Islamic movements, armed groups, and leaders… benefited from this delegation of violence to the people… State authority is likely to be as difficult to exercise and foreign interventions as unrewarding as ever.

The post Wars of the Greater Middle East, 1945–92 | TNSR appeared first on Small Wars Journal by Arizona State University.